Loneliness in Europe

Introducing “Loneliness in Europe” – A Comprehensive Handbook

The book Loneliness in Europe is published by Springer Nature Switzerland AG and edited by Sylke V. Schnepf, Béatrice d’Hombres and Caterina Mauri. All three are senior researchers at the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre (JRC) or at the Brussels Institute for Social and Population Studies (BRISPO). Their expertise spans population economics, social policy and behavioural research. The volume, released in 2024, forms part of the Population Economics series and presents peer‑reviewed evidence on the determinants, risks and policy interventions related to loneliness across the 27 EU member states.

Key Findings on Loneliness Prevalence

The EU Loneliness Survey, the primary data source, interviewed 25 646 respondents in late 2022. Using the direct question “How much of the time during the past four weeks have you been feeling lonely?”, 12‑13 % reported feeling “very lonely” (most or all of the time) and 36‑40 % reported being “slightly lonely” (at least some of the time). Loneliness was lowest (≤10 %) in Austria, Croatia, Czechia, the Netherlands, Slovenia and Spain, and highest (≥17 %) in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Ireland and Luxembourg. Younger adults showed the highest probabilities of loneliness, while the prevalence declined with age.

Vulnerable Demographic and Socio‑Economic Groups

Women, particularly those aged 16‑24, were more likely to feel lonely than men. Income was a strong predictor: respondents in the lowest income quintile were 7 percentage points more likely to be lonely than those in the top quintile. Educational attainment mattered; individuals with secondary education or less reported higher loneliness than those with post‑secondary qualifications. Unemployment was associated with a >20 % chance of feeling lonely, whereas retirees reported lower rates, partly reflecting the age pattern. Migrants—especially second‑generation migrants—experienced higher loneliness than native‑born individuals, and non‑heterosexual respondents (LGB+) reported markedly higher loneliness (≈18 % very lonely) than heterosexual respondents (≈13 %). People with permanent disability or chronic illness also showed elevated loneliness levels.

Living Conditions and Social Connections

Household composition proved crucial: adults living alone were 3 percentage points more likely to be lonely than those sharing a household with other adults. Having a partner or spouse reduced loneliness risk substantially compared with being single, divorced or widowed. Recent relocation amplified loneliness; respondents who had lived in their municipality for 0‑2 years were more prone to loneliness than those residing 11 years or more. Population density displayed a U‑shaped relationship: the most remote rural areas (lowest 20 % density) and the most densely populated urban centres both exhibited higher loneliness rates, while medium‑density towns showed lower prevalence.

Policy Interventions and Research Outlook

The volume outlines a range of evidence‑based interventions, from community‑building programmes to targeted mental‑health support, and highlights the importance of rigorous evaluation. It stresses that loneliness is both a public‑health and an economic issue, linked to higher mortality risk—comparable to obesity and smoking combined—and to reduced productivity. The authors call for systematic, EU‑wide monitoring to guide policies, noting that the EU Loneliness Survey’s multi‑measure design (direct question, UCLA scale, DJG scale) enhances robustness. Future research directions include longitudinal tracking, causal analysis of interventions, and deeper exploration of urban‑rural dynamics.

Implications for Sustainable Housing

For stakeholders in sustainable housing, the findings underscore the social dimension of housing policy. Affordable, well‑designed dwellings that facilitate social interaction—through shared spaces, proximity to community services and support for multi‑generational or co‑housing models—can mitigate loneliness, especially among low‑income households and recent movers. Integrating social‑cohesion metrics into housing assessments aligns with broader EU sustainability goals and may improve health outcomes, reduce healthcare costs and enhance overall well‑being across the Union.